Teaching and Learning

Teaching and Learning


Learning : is relatively permanent change in behavior that is attributable to practice and experiences, and is inferred from improvement in performance .

Teaching : Is the process of sharing knowledge and insight and facilitate other another to learn knowledge , insight and skills.

Note : Teaching and learning cant be separated , while person is teaching learning also take place or at least should be.

Education : Continuing process of using immeasurable inner resources to gain external information.

Learning event: The learning that occure when the stimulus situation affect the learner in such away that performance change from a time before in that situation to a time after being in it .

The element of learning event

The learner

The learning situation stimuli eg the book

The response ( the new performance )


Sequence of events in learning


1. The apprehending phase ( register the stimuli )

2. The acquisition phase( change that occur in they CNS that underlay the new capability ) .

3. The storage phase

4. The retrieval phase


Types of learning

• Signal learning or classical conditioning
• Stimulus – response
• Chaining
• Verbal association
• Multiple discrimination
• Concept learning
• Principle learning
• Problem solving
• social learning

Factor that Enhance Learning

• Successful effort
• Proceeding from simple to complex
• Use of several senses
• Active participation
• Repetitive practice
• Application
• Positive feedback
• Periodic recall
• Relating instruction to student interest and value
• Relating instruction to students future,and experiences
Unpleasant condition and consequences
• Students are bored
• Students are hurt emotionally
• Students are frustrated
• Student are subjected to unpleasant physical conditions


Barriers to learning
• Stress
• Sensory impairement
• Language
• The educator








Domains of Learning( According to Bloom s Taxonomy )

• Taxonomy : is a method of sequential classification on progressively higher level

Cognitive Domain :


emphasize intellectual outcome such as information and knowledge , thinking , naming , solving, predicting and other intellectual aspects of learning and it involve six levels :


1. Knowledge : the starting point that include both the acquisition of information and the ability to recall information when needed

2. Comprehension: the basic level of understanding and it involve the ability to know what is being communicated in order to make use of the information


3. Application: is the ability to use a learned skill in a new situation .

4. Analysis : the ability to analyze learned skill into basic elements and understand the relationship between elements.

5. Synthesis : the ability to combine existing elements in order to create something original.

6. Evaluation : the ability to make judgment about the value of something by using standard.



The Psychomotor Domain


Refer to the use of basic motor skills ,coordination, and physical movement , it trait the skills requiring use and coordination of skeletal muscle as in physical activities of performing , manipulating, and constructing and involve seven major classes:

1. Perception : the ability to use sensory cues to guide physical
activity .


2. Set : the learner readiness to act .


3. Guided response : the early stage of learning a complex skill which include imitation.


4. Mechanism: the ability to perform complex motor skills .


5. Complex overt response : the intermediate stage of learning complex skills.


6. Adaptation :a learner ability to modify motor skill to fit new situation.


7. Origination: a learner ability to create new movement pattern .







The Affective Domain


It address the learner emotions toward learning experiences . a learner attitude interest , attention , awareness , and value are demonstrated by affective behaviour , these emotional behaviors are organized in herarchical format starting from simplest to the most complex. and involve five level :

1. Receiving: willing to give attention to event and activity eg listen to , be aware of , perceive , be alert to

2. Responding: willing to react to event through some form of participation eg reply, answer, follow along, approve

3. Valuing: willing to accept or reject an event through the expression of positive or negative attitude eg accept, attain, assume

4. Organizing: willing to organize the value and understand the relationship between the values and accept some value as dominant over other eg organize, select judge ..

5. Characterizing ( internalizing value ) : act in accordance with accepted value and incorporate this behaviors as apart of his personality eg believe, practice , carries out
Motivation


There is six factors serves as a sources of motivation for adult learner :


.1) social relationship: to make new friend.


2) external expectation: to comply with instructions from someone else ,to fulfill the expectations and recommendations of someone with formal authority.

3) social welfare : to improve the ability to serve mankind and improve ability to participate in community work..


4) personal advancement : to achieve higher status in a job



5) escape\stimulation : to relieve boredom, provide break in the routine of home or work.


6) cognitive interest : to learn for the sake of learning , seek knowledge for its own sake and to satisfy an inquiring mind.
Learning Theories

Learning has three identifiable aspects and elements regardless of the learning theory that adopted :


Input : the acquisition of information and the organization of information in to action hypothesis.


Throughput( Operation Aspect) : is the activity phase , it can be directly observable behavior response to input .


Output ( Feedback Aspect) :it is the result of operational aspector the result of evaluation .

The importance of learning theories

• help to dictate the selection , organization, and presentation of content .


• help to determine how material is ordered .


• can dictate the types and kind of courses
Categories of Learning Theories


Cognitive Learning Theory (Gestalt – Field theories)


Behavioral change stems from changes in the elaboration or structure of information inside our heads.
People neither good nor bad ,they simply interact with their environment and their learning is related to perception thus these theories define learning as :
Reorganization of the learner perceptual or psychological world Learners construct meaning, creating their own understanding of events by relating new information to prior knowledge.
  Teachers assist students in forming these “links”.

Learning = change in cognitive structure

Teaching = the stimulation of relations between new information and existing cognitive structures; assistance in altering cognitive structures.

Cognitive strategies: collections of cognitive operations that learners can use to match new information to existing cognitive structures and generate solutions to problems.

Theorist : Jean Piaget
Behavioural Learning Theories ( Stimulus Response or Conditioning Theories)

It consider learning is a behavioral change and it is a response to certain stimuli .
The teacher seeks to significantly change the learner behavior through selected stimuli .
Theorist : skinner, ivan Pavlov
Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
- A neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.
-The organism as responding to the environment (fails to capture active nature of the organism and its influence on the environment. )
-Explains involuntary responses –

Reflexes — Automatic stimulus-response connections.

-Unconditional Stimulus (US) — A stimulus that provides a response without prior learning.

-Unconditional Response — (UP) — An unlearned response that is automatically elected by the US

-Conditioned Stimulus (CS) — Previous neutral stimulus that eventually elicits the condition response after being associated with the unconditioned stimulus.

-Conditioned Response (CR) — Learned response to CS that occurs after CS-US paring. (Pavlov, 1927)

Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)


- learning by observation and imitation of the behaviour of others.
In contrast to behavioral theory:
 emphasis is not on behavioral change per se but on the thinking (cognition) behind behavioral change;
 explains how a person acquires a new behavior.

Two Stages of Observational Learning:

1. Acquisition - learn the actions of a model by observation. Depends on vicarious reinforcement.

vicarious reinforcement
  provides information about behaviours and motivates the observer to attempt to perform the behavior
  Seeing a model reinforced increases chances of acquiring the model’s behaviour;
  Seeing a model punished decreases chances of acquiring the model’s behaviour (vicarious punishment).
  Influences efficacy beliefs (self-judgments of how well or poorly one will perform a task, based in part on success or failure of model).
2. Performance - whether acquired behavior is performed results from operant principles such as direct reinforcement or punishment.

Four elements in modeling
1. Attention to the modeled behaviour
2. Retention of the required elements of the modeled behaviour
3. production of the behaviour (dependent upon practice, feedback & coaching)
4. motivation and reingorcement - increase likelihood that a desired behavior will be used











Humanistic learning theories


Assume that there is natural tendency for people to learn and that learning increase in encouraging environment.

Humanistic "theories" of learning tend to be highly value-driven and hence more like prescriptions (about what ought to happen) rather than descriptions (of what does happen).

They emphasise the "natural desire" of everyone to learn. Whether this natural desire is to learn whatever it is you are teaching, however, is not clear

. It follows from this, they maintain, that learners need to be empowered and to have control over the learning process.
So the teacher relinquishes a great deal of authority and becomes a facilitator.


The school is particularly associated with
Carl Rogers, and
Abraham Maslow (psychologists),
John Holt (child education) and